批判性推理概述
GMAT批判性推理考题总共可以分为三大类:
1. 演绎推理(约占20%)
2. 归纳推理(约占60%)
3. 特殊问法(约占20%)
演绎推理及其解法(Deductive Reasoning)
实际上,演绎推理的英文—Deductive Reasoning—很好地揭示了这种推理的本质。
“de-ductive”的前缀是“de-”,本意为“去掉,去除”。也就是说,那些把前提中的一些信息“去掉”从而得出结论的推理是演绎推理。用数学中的集合可以直观的表示为:
前提:{1,2,3}
结论:{1,2}
显然地,前提中去掉信息“{3}”即可得出结论。也就是说,在演绎推理中,前提是包含结论的。对于两个集合来说,“包含关系”可以通过集合中元素的数量来判断,但对于两个事件来说,包含关系显然没有这么直观。因此,我们不得不专门引入一个描述事件间“包含关系”的逻辑概念—蕴含,即:
如果事件A发生,那么事件B必然发生。
当事件A和事件B满足上述关系时,我们称“事件A蕴含事件B”。同理,用事件A和事件B构成的演绎推理可以写为:
前提:事件A。
结论:事件B。
举一个演绎推理的实际例子:
前提1:小明每周三都一定会穿衬衫。
前提2:今天是周三。
结论:小明今天一定会穿衬衫。
在上述例子中,如果“前提1和前提2”真的发生,那么结论是必然发生的。
GMAT考试对于演绎推理的考查方式是:将“前提”放入题干,让考生在选项中寻找“结论”,例如:
小明每周三都一定会穿衬衫。今天是周三。
如果上述说法正确,那么以下哪个说法一定正确?
(A) 小明今天会穿衬衫。
(B) 小明喜欢穿衬衫。
例题答案为选项(A)。这类考题的本质是在问题干信息“蕴含”下列哪个选项。显然地,选项B是不一定发生的,即,我们无法从文章中推理出小明是否喜欢衬衫。
因此,演绎推理的解法是非常简单的—充分理解文段并且不加入任何自己的知识与想法,之后仔细检查选项是否被文段信息蕴含。
例题1
From 1980 to 1989, total consumption of fish in the country of Jurania increased by 4.5 percent, and total consumption of poultry products there increased by 9.0 percent. During the same period, the population of Jurania increased by 6 percent, in part due to immigration to Jurania from other countries in the region.
If the statements above are true, which of the following must also be true on the basis of them?
(A) During the 1980s in Jurania, profits of wholesale distributors of poultry products increased at a greater rate than did profits of wholesale distributors of fish.
(B) For people who immigrated to Jurania during the 1980s, fish was less likely to be a major part of their diet than was poultry.
(C) In 1989 Juranians consumed twice as much poultry as fish.
(D) For a significant proportion of Jurania's population, both fish and poultry products were a regular part of their diet during the 1980s.
(E) Per capita consumption of fish in Jurania was lower in 1989 than in 1980.
选项分析:
(A) 在80年代的Jurania,家禽批发商获得的利润上涨了更多的比例相对于鱼肉批发商的利润。销量高不代表利润高,原文没有提到过利润。
(B) 对于80是年代移民到Jurania的人来说,鱼比家禽更不可能成为他们的主要的食材。当移民之后,我们能看到的是消耗量的变化,但是并不代表原有居民的口味就是不变的,所以鱼上涨的没有家禽快不等于移民的人都喜欢吃家禽。
(C) 1989年Jurania的人吃的家禽量是吃鱼量的两倍。80到89年这段时间的增长率差值是两倍,和总共消耗的数量是两个概念。
(D) 对于大部分的Jurania的人来说,鱼和家禽都是他们在80年代的主要食材。该信息原文完全没有涉及到过。原文一直在说的都是他们增长的情况,完全无法得出是否是主要食材这个概念。
(E) Correct. 人均消耗的鱼的数量1989年比1980年要低。因为鱼的消耗量增长了4.5%,而人口增加了6%,所以平均每个人消耗鱼的数量肯定是要下降的。(如果鱼的消耗量也增长6%,则可以不变)
归纳推理及其解法(Inductive Reasoning)
同理,归纳推理的英文—Inductive Reasoning—也能很好地揭示这种推理的本质。
“in-ductive”的前缀是“in-”,本意为“在…里面”。也就是说,那些前提信息在结论信息“里面”的推理是归纳推理。用数学中的集合可以直观的表示为:
前提:{1,2}
结论:{1,2,3}
举一个归纳推理的实际例子:
前提:A地地上有水。
结论:A地可能是下过雨了。
在逻辑上,结论“下雨”蕴含前提“地上有水”,即,如果A地下过雨,那么A地的地上应该是有水的。显然地,这个例子和其上面的数学集合模型是完全匹配的。
因为归纳推理的前提不蕴含结论,所以它才具备被削弱或被加强的可能。GMAT考题可能会写成:
A地地上有水。因此,我们认为A地可能是下过雨了。
以下哪个选项,如果正确,可以最强地削弱上述推理?
(A) 也许有人蓄意向地上泼水。
(B) 足够多的乌云汇集才能最终降雨。
例题答案为选项(A)。虽然大部分读者可能难以准确解释为什么选项A正确,但我相信你们都可以通过直觉选择正确。下面我们就详细地讲讲为什么选项A正确但选项B错误。
归纳推理总共可以分为四个模型,分别为:
(1) 一般型归纳推理
(2) 因果型归纳推理
(3) 类比型归纳推理
(4) 方案型归纳推理
这四个模型没有本质区别,只是它们答案选项的侧重点略有不同。
一般型归纳推理
前提讲一个事件且结论讲另一个事件的归纳推理就是一般型归纳推理。例如:
前提:A地地上有水。
结论:A地可能是下过雨了。
一般型归纳推理有三个可能的谬误方向,分别为:
样本偏差(Biased sample)
草率结论(Hasty generalization)
特异性谬误(Fallacy of specificity)
样本偏差(Biased sample)
让我们依然从归纳推理的基础模型讲起:
前提:{1,2}
结论:{1,2,3}
因为归纳推理的前提被蕴含在结论之中,所以我们可以认为前提是从结论中抽取出来的样本。那么,既然是样本,自然可能会产生偏差,例如:
前提:{1*,2}
结论:{1,2,3}
结论真正蕴含的“样本”应该是{1,2},但上例给出的却是{1*,2}。因此,这个归纳推理产生了“样本偏差”这一谬误,即,元素1不等于元素1*。又例如:
前提:A地地上有东西。
结论:A地可能是下过雨了。
结论真正蕴含的样本应该是“A地地上有水”,但上例给出的却是“A地地上有东西”。这个样本的偏差点在于“东西不等于水”。如果问削弱,则答案选项会直白地指出这个偏差;反之,如果问加强,则答案选项会修正这个偏差。
例题1
最近一项研究发现,某国30岁至45岁人群中,患有冠心病、骨质疏松等病症的人越来越多,而原来患有这些病症的大多是老年人。调研者由此认为,该国年轻人中 “老年病”发病率有不断增加的趋势。
以下哪项如果为真,最能质疑上述调研结论?
(A) 由于国家医疗保障水平的提高,相比以往,该国民众更有条件关注自已的身体健康。
(B)“老年人”的最低年龄比以前提高了,“老年病”的患者范围也有所变化。
(C) 近年来,由于大量移民涌入,该国45岁以下年轻人的数量急剧增加。
(D) 尽管冠心病、骨质疏松等病症是常见的“老年病”,老年人患的病未必都是“老年病”。
(E) 近几十年来,该国人口老龄化严重,但健康老龄人口的比重在不断增大。
上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:患有老年病的年轻人的人数增加。
结论:年轻人中老年病的发病率不断增加。
在逻辑上,结论“发病率增加”真正蕴含的应该是“病人数与总人数的比值增加”,但现在的前提中只讲到了“病人数增加”,所以产生了偏差。由此可知,答案选项应该指出偏差点,即,病人数不等同于病人数与总人数的比值。显然地,选项C明确的指出了这一点,即,年轻人的总人数增加。
例题2
Bricktown University and Rapids University both have greater numbers of applicants than they have space to admit, and must therefore reject substantial numbers of applicants. The former admits fewer applicants each year than the latter. So we should expect to find that Bricktown University has tougher admissions standards than Rapids University.
Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(A) Compared to those who attend Rapids University, a greater percentage of students who attend Bricktown University graduate.
(B) Rapids University does not have significantly greater numbers of applicants than Bricktown University.
(C) Bricktown University’s curriculum is more rigorous than Rapids University's.
(D) The percentage of accepted applicants who actually attend Rapids University is less than the percentage who attend Bricktown University.
(E) Rapids University students tend to be better prepared for university study than Bricktown University students.
上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:Bricktown比Rapids录取了更少的申请者。
结论:Bricktown比Rapids的录取标准更严苛。
在逻辑上,结论“录取标准更严苛”真正蕴含的应该是“同等情况下录取率更低”,但现在的前提中只讲到了“B比R录取了更少的人”,所以产生了偏差。由此可知,答案选项应该修正偏差点,即,录取人数不等同于录取人数与申请者总数的比值(录取率)。显然地,选项B明确的指出了这一点,即,R不比B拥有明显更多的申请者总数。
草率结论(Hasty generalization)
同理,我们依然从基础模型讲起:
前提:{1,2}
结论:{1,2,3}
即便是前提不存在样本偏差,归纳推理依然存在漏洞。既然前提可以被看作是“抽样”,那自然就会存在抽样不全的问题。也就是说,由于抽出的样本数量不足,所以结论可能过于“草率”,还需更多样本来证明。在基础模型中,{3}就可以被看作是结论的另一个样本,因此,若选项中指明{3}不存在,则可以削弱推理;反之,若选项中指明{3}存在,则可以加强推理。又例如:
前提:A地地上有水。
结论:A地可能是下过雨了。
此时结论蕴含前提,但依然是可以被削弱或加强的。若问削弱,则答案选项可以是“A地在最近根本没出现过可能产生雨水的乌云”;若问加强,则答案选项可以是“A地在最近出现过可能产生雨水的乌云”。总之,草率结论这一方向就是要我们从选项中找出除前提外结论蕴含的另一件事。此事件不存在可以削弱推理;反之则可以加强推理。
例题3
Many people suffer an allergic reaction to sulfites, including those that are commonly added to wine as preservatives. However, since there are several winemakers producing wine to which no sulfites are added, those who would like to drink wine but are allergic to sulfites can drink these wines without risking an allergic reaction to sulfites.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(A) Sulfites occur naturally in most wine.
(B) The sulfites that can produce an allergic reaction are also commonly found in beverages other than wine.
(C) Wines without added sulfites tend to be at least moderately expensive.
(D) Apart from sulfites, there are other substances commonly present in wine that can trigger allergic reactions.
(E) Wine without added sulfites sometimes becomes undrinkable even before the wine is sold to consumers.
上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:酒里不添加硫化物。
结论:那些对硫化物过敏的人可以在不冒着对硫化物过敏的风险喝酒了。
在逻辑上,若喝酒的人不会对硫化物过敏,则显然酒里不能添加硫化物。也就是说,本例中的结论是蕴含前提的。要想削弱这个推理,则可以指出结论蕴含的另外一些事件不存在。例如,贮藏酒的桶里会渗入硫化物,或者,酒体发酵过程中会自然产生硫化物等。显然选项A是正确的(选项D不正确是因为结论讲的是对硫化物过敏,因此对其他物质过敏和推理无关)。
特异性谬误(Fallacy of specificity)
同理,我们再次从基础模型讲起:
前提:{1,2}
结论:{1,2,3}
除了草率结论外,特异性谬误也是一个评估方向。仔细观察推理模型可知,纵然结论蕴含前提,但很可能不只有结论能蕴含前提,还有其他事件也能蕴含该前提。例如:
前提:{1,2}
结论:{1,2,4}
显然地,{1,2,3}和{1,2,4}都蕴含{1,2},因此,从{1,2}中不一定可以推理出{1,2,3},也有可能是{1,2,4}。又例如:
前提:A地地上有水。
结论:A地可能是下过雨了。
此时结论蕴含前提,但依然是可以被削弱或加强的。若问削弱,则答案选项可以是“也许有人蓄意向地上泼水”;若问加强,则答案选项可以是“没有人蓄意向地上泼水”。总之,特异性谬误这一方向就是要我们从选项中找出除结论之外的另一个能蕴含前提的事件。此事件存在可以削弱推理;反之则可以加强推理。
例题4
Because it was long thought that few people would watch lengthy televised political messages, most televised political advertisements, like commercial advertisements, took the form of short messages. Last year, however, one candidate produced a half-hour-long advertisement. At the beginning of the half-hour slot a substantial portion of the viewing public had tuned in to that station. Clearly, then, many more people are interested in lengthy televised political messages than was previously thought.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
(A) The candidate who produced the half-hour-long advertisement did not win election at the polls.
(B) The half-hour-long advertisement was widely publicized before it was broadcast.
(C) The half-hour-long advertisement was aired during a time slot normally taken by one of the most popular prime-time shows.
(D) Most short political advertisements are aired during a wide range of programs in order to reach a broad spectrum of viewers.
(E) In general a regular-length television program that features debate about current political issues depends for its appeal on the personal qualities of the program's moderator.
上述例题的前提和结论可以整理为:
前提:在电视政治广告的开始,有很多人调进了这个台。
结论:很多人还是喜欢看电视政治广告的。
在逻辑上,若很多人喜欢看电视政治广告,则他们显然需要调进该台以收看。也就是说,本例中的结论是蕴含前提的。要想削弱这个推理,则可以指出另一个蕴含前提的事件。例如,可能有人拿枪逼着那些人看该电视台,或者,有人许以重金诱惑那些人看该电视台。这两个事件均可以导致很多人调进该电视台。显然选项C是正确的,即,可能是那些人被骗了,以为是会播出其它受人欢迎的节目而调进了该台。
一般型归纳推理解题方式总结
当拿到一道一般型归纳推理的考题时,我们可以尽量按照如下步骤解题:
(1) 正确区分与提炼前提和结论。
(2) 按照样本偏差(Biased sample),草率结论(Hasty generalization),和特异性谬误(Fallacy of specificity)这三个评估方向来思考答案选项可能的方向。
(3) 逐一阅读选项并寻找答案。
例题5
Every fall Croton's jays migrate south. The jays always join flocks of migrating crookbeaks with which they share the same summer and winter territories. If a jay becomes separated from the crookbeaks it is accompanying, it wanders until it comes across another flock of crookbeaks. Clearly, therefore, Croton's jays lack the navigational ability to find their way south on their own.
Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above?
(A) Croton's jays lay their eggs in the nests of crookbeaks, which breed upon completing their southern migration.
(B) The three species most closely related to crookbeaks do not migrate at all.
(C) In the spring, Croton's jays migrate north in the company of Tattersall warblers.
(D) Species other than Croton's jays occasionally accompany flocks of migrating crookbeaks.
(E) In the spring, crookbeaks migrate north before Croton's jays do.
情景:Croton's jays是一种需要迁徙的鸟。这种鸟的迁徙通常是和另外一种鸟同时发生的,如果一只Croton's jays掉队了,那么它就会等下一波鸟来了之后再走。因此,我们认为Croton's jays这种鸟是没有方向感的。
推理:推理文段的前提和结论描述的事件不同,是一般型归纳推理。
前提:如果一只Croton's jays掉队了,那么它就会等下一波鸟来了之后再走。
结论:Croton's jays这种鸟是没有方向感的。
思考方向(加强):
1) 不存在样本偏差:一般型归纳推理首先需要考虑样本是否存在偏差。本题中结论是蕴含前提的,也就是说,如果“Croton's jays真的没有方向感”,那么“它肯定要跟着其他鸟一起迁徙”。
2) 不存在草率结论:给出结论蕴含的其他样本,例如Croton's jays还有其他的一些没有方向感的表现。
3) 不存在特异性谬误:另外一个也能蕴含前提的事件是不存在的。例如,Croton's jays不是因为其他原因跟着crookbeaks一起迁徙的。
选项分析:
(A) Croton's jays会在Crookbeak的鸟巢中下蛋,Crookbeak会在向南迁徙的过程中孵化这些蛋。本选项可以解释为什么Croton's jays会跟着Crookbeak前行,即,是因为要向Crookbeak这种鸟的巢里下蛋,所以才会选择跟着Crookbeak迁徙。本选项属于指出了推理文短的特异性谬误,可以削弱推理文段。
(B) 和Crookbeak最相近的三个种类的鸟从来不迁徙。本选项即不能解释为什么Croton's jays会跟随迁徙,又不是结论蕴含的其他样本,可以排除。
(C) Correct. 在春季,Croton's jays会随着塔特萨尔莺的队伍向北迁徙。本选项提及了结论蕴含的另一个样本,即,如果Croton's jays真的没有方向感,那么它向哪里迁徙都要跟着其它鸟类。
(D) 除掉Croton's jays,其他种类的鸟很少和Crookbeak一起成群迁徙。本选项不属于任意一个思考方向。
(E) 在春天,Crookbeak会先于Croton's jays向北迁徙。Croton's jays不跟着crookbeak不代表它不跟着其它鸟走,因此本选项无法评估推理。
因果型归纳推理
前提讲两个事件存在正相关或负相关的关系并且结论把这两个事件解读为因果关系的推理是因果型归纳推理,例如:
前提:在事件A出现的时候,事件B也会出现。
结论:事件A导致事件B。
因果型归纳推理也有三个可能的谬误方向,分别为:
纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)
因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)
它因导致结果(Other potential causes)
从基本模型上来看,无论是一般型还是因果型都是相同的。之所以分为两类,主要是因为因果型归纳推理不存在“样本偏差”这一评估方向。显然地,如果事件A真的导致了事件B,那么这两件事必然会同时出现。由此可知,因果型归纳推理相当于默认了结论蕴含前提。三个方向的定义如下:
纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)指的是:事件A和事件B在其它的情况下可能不再具有正相关或负相关的关系。
因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)指的是:也许是事件B导致的事件A,而非事件A导致的事件B。
它因导致结果(Other potential causes)指的是:也许存在另一个因素事件C导致了事件B的发生,又或者,这个事件C同时导致了事件A和事件B的发生。
在因果型归纳推理的三个评估方向中,纯粹巧合(Sheer coincidence)实质上是等同于草率结论的。
让我们回顾一下草率结论的特点:
从选项中找出结论蕴含的另一件事(除前提之外)。
试想,如果事件A导致事件B,那么这两件事应在任何情况下都具有正相关或负相关的关系。也就是说,纯粹巧合这一方向在本质上是在指出结论所蕴含的另一个事件不存在。
同理,因果倒置(Which is the cause and which is the effect)和它因导致结果(Other potential causes)实质上都等同于特异性谬误。
让我们再回顾一下特异性谬误的特点:
从选项中找出另一个能蕴含前提的事件(除结论之外)
试想,显然地,“事件B导致的事件A”和“存在事件C同时导致事件A和事件B”也是蕴含前提“事件A和事件B存在正相关或负相关的关系”的。也就是说,这两个方向在本质上是在指出另一个也蕴含前提的事件可能是存在的。
例题6
A study followed a group of teenagers who had never smoked and tracked whether they took up smoking and how their mental health changed. After one year, the incidence of depression among those who had taken up smoking was four times as high as it was among those who had not. Since nicotine in cigarettes changes brain chemistry, perhaps thereby affecting mood, it is likely that smoking contributes to depression in teenagers.
Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
(A) Participants who were depressed at the start of the study were no more likely to be smokers after one year than those who were not depressed.
(B) The study did not distinguish between participants who smoked only occasionally and those who were heavy smokers.
(C) Few, if any, of the participants in the study were friends or relatives of other participants.
(D) Some participants entered and emerged from a period of depression within the year of the study.
(E) The researchers did not track use of alcohol by the teenagers.
情景:研究发现,凡是吸烟的人都更容易抑郁,所以我们认为,吸烟会导致抑郁症的出现。
前提:凡是“吸烟”的人都更容易“抑郁”(“吸烟”和“抑郁”之间存在正相关关系)
结论:吸烟导致抑郁
思考方向:
1) 不是纯粹巧合:“吸烟”和“抑郁”不是纯粹巧合的,也就是两者在其他时间或地点时也会同时出现。
2) 不存在因果倒置:即,不会是抑郁导致的吸烟。
3) 不存在它因导致结果:即,可能其他原因导致的抑郁,或者这个原因同时导致了吸烟和抑郁。
选项分析:
(A) Correct. 相对于那些在不抑郁的人,凡是那些在研究最开始就抑郁的参与者不会更有可能成为吸烟者。这个选项内含的意思是:抑郁不会导致吸烟。相当于排除了“因果倒置”这个可能性从而加强了推理文段。
(B) 研究没有区分哪些偶尔抽烟和重度抽烟的人。本选项只谈到了吸烟,没说到抑郁,可以排除。
(C) 很少有研究的参与者是其它参与者的朋友或者亲属。本选项完全没有谈到吸烟和抑郁,可以排除。
(D) 某些参与者在一年的研究中展现了一段时间的抑郁。本选项只谈到了抑郁,但是没有给抑郁的产生提供别的原因,因此可以排除。
(E) 研究人员没有跟踪青少年的喝酒情况。本选项完全没有谈到吸烟和抑郁,没有理由相信喝酒可以导致抑郁,因此可以排除。
例题7
Healthy lungs produce a natural antibiotic that protects them from infection by routinely killing harmful bacteria on airway surfaces. People with cystic fibrosis, however, are unable to fight off such bacteria, even though their lungs produce normal amounts of the antibiotic. The fluid on airway surfaces in the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis has an abnormally high salt concentration; accordingly, scientists hypothesize that the high salt concentration is what makes the antibiotic ineffective.
Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the scientists’hypothesis?
(A) When the salt concentration of the fluid on the airway surfaces of healthy people is raised artificially, the salt concentration soon returns to normal.
(B) A sample of the antibiotic was capable of killing bacteria in an environment with an unusually low concentration of salt.
(C) When lung tissue from people with cystic fibrosis is maintained in a solution with a normal salt concentration, the tissue can resist bacteria.
(D) Many lung infections can be treated by applying synthetic antibiotics to the airway surfaces.
(E) High salt concentrations have an antibiotic effect in many circumstances.
情景:健康的肺能生产自然的抗体。但是,有囊肿性纤维化病的病人却不能攻击入侵的细菌。研究发现,这些病人肺中的含盐量很高。因此,科学家认为是高盐度让抗体失效的。
前提:an abnormally high salt concentration和the antibiotic ineffective之间存在正相关关系。
结论:The high salt concentration is what makes the antibiotic ineffective。
思考方向:三种情况(加强):
1) 不是纯粹巧合。“高盐度”和“抗体失效”不是纯粹巧合的,也就是两者在其他时间或地点时也依然同时出现或同时不出现。
2) 不存在因果倒置。例如,不是因为抗体失效所以才有了盐量的沉积。
3) 不存在它因导致结果,即,不是因为其他事件导致的抗体失效。
选项分析:
(A) 当人工的将正常人气道上的液体变成高盐度的时候,含盐量马上会下降至正常水平。本选项讨论的是正常人的气道不会允许具有高盐度的液体,与推理文段中的因果没有关系,可以排除。
(B) 抗体的样本可以在很低盐含量的情况下具有能力杀死细菌。本选项描述的是低盐度时抗体的表现,并没有谈及高盐度的问题,可以排除。
(C) Correct. 如果从患有cystic fibrosis的人身上切下来的组织被放到正常含盐量的地方,那么这些组织可以杀死病菌。通过控制变量,证明含盐度和抗病能力的相关性。可以保留。属于“不是纯粹巧合”。
(D) 许多肺病患者可以被施用合成抗体于气道表面来治愈。合成抗体和自然抗体没有关系,因此本选项可以排除。
(E) 高盐浓度在很多情况下具有抗体的效果。本选项描述的是高盐度的一个属性,可以排除。
类比型归纳推理
前提和结论讲相同事件的归纳推理为类比型归纳推理,例如:
前提:小李去吃饭。
结论:小明去吃饭
类比型归纳推理只有一个谬误方向,即,其他相关相似点缺失(The absence of additional relevant similarities)。也就是说,我们只要能在选项中找出直接指出两个类比对象的区别的选项即可削弱推理;反之,找出直接指出两个类比对象的相同点的选项即可加强推理。
实质上,类比型归纳推理就是出现了明显的样本偏差的一般型归纳推理。试想,因为小明和小李本身就不是一个人,所以结论不可能蕴含前提。如果我们能给出小明和小李的其他重要相似点,那么我们是在修正偏差,尽量让小明和小李一样;反之,就是在指出偏差。
例题8
Advertisement: Ten years ago, the Cormond Hotel's lobby was carpeted with Duratex carpet while the lobby of a nearby hotel was being carpeted with our competitor's most durable carpet. Today, after a decade in which the two hotels have had similar amounts of foot traffic through their lobbies, that other hotel is having to replace the worn-out carpeting near its lobby entrances, whereas the Cormond's Duratex carpeting has years of wear left in it.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the force of the advertisement's evidence for concluding that Duratex carpet is more durable than the carpet of its competitor?
(A) The lobby of the Cormond Hotel has five different entrances, but the lobby of the other hotel has only two.
(B) The carpet of the Cormond Hotel's lobby is not the most durable carpet that Duratex manufactures.
(C) The other hotel has a popular restaurant that can be reached from outside without walking through the hotel lobby.
(D) The carpet that is being used to replace carpeting near the other hotel's lobby entrances is not Duratex carpet.
(E) There is a third hotel near the other two that has not replaced the Duratex carpet in its lobby for more than 15 years.
情景:Duratex最耐用!证据表明,Cormond Hotel自从铺了Duratex地毯之后,10年没坏;邻近的差不多的酒店铺了别的牌子的地毯,已经坏了。因此,Duratex是最棒的。
思考方向:类比推理只有一个评估方向,即,类比对象有至关重要的区别。
选项分析:
(A) Correct. Cormond Hotel的大厅有五个门,但是其它的Hotel的大厅有两个门。本选项给出了两个类比对象的不同点。
(B) Cormond Hotel的大厅所铺设的地板并不是Duratex制造的最耐用的地板。显然本选项并未给出类比对象的区别。
(C) Other Hotel有一个可以不从大厅走就能到达的很受欢迎的餐厅。显然本选项并未给出类比对象的区别。
(D) Other Hotel想要置换的地毯不是Duratex制造的地毯。显然本选项并未给出类比对象的区别。
(E) 另外一家Hotel用了Duratex的地毯十五年未坏。本选项提到了第三个类比对象,无法评估类比推理。
方案型归纳推理
前提和结论给出明确的目标和方案的归纳推理是方案型归纳推理。例如:
目标:为了考到750分。
方案:我决定每天学习5小时。
方案型归纳推理有两个可能的谬误方向,分别为:
(1) 方案难以达成目标
(2) 方案本身实施困难
例如,若想削弱上文给出的方案,我们可以说:
能考到多少分主要由能力和学习效率决定,与学习时间关系不大。
这是典型的“方案难以达成目标”方向。也就是说,只要我们能说出方案做了也不一定能达到目标,就可以削弱方案型归纳推理;反之,则可以加强该推理。
又例如,若想削弱上文给出的方案,我们还可以说:
我每天工作很忙,无论如何也无法抽出5小时来学习。
这是典型的“方案本身实施困难”方向。也就是说,只要我们能说出方案本身难以实施,就可以削弱方案型归纳推理;反之,则可以加强该推理。
例题9
Trancorp currently transports all its goods to Burland Island by truck. The only bridge over the channel separating Burland from the mainland is congested, and trucks typically spend hours in traffic. Trains can reach the channel more quickly than trucks, and freight cars can be transported to Burland by barges that typically cross the channel in an hour. Therefore, to reduce shipping time, Trancorp plans to switch to trains and barges to transport goods to Burland.
Which of the following, if true, casts most serious doubt on whether Trancorp's plan will succeed?
(A) It does not cost significantly more to transport goods to Burland by truck than it does to transport goods by train and barge.
(B) The number of cars traveling over the bridge into Burland is likely to increase slightly over the next two years.
(C) Because there has been so much traffic on the roads leading to the bridge between Burland and the mainland, these roads are in extremely poor condition.
(D) Barges that arrive at Burland typically wait several hours for their turn to be unloaded.
(E) Most trucks transporting goods into Burland return to the mainland empty.
情景:Trancorp现在都是用卡车向Burland运输物资。现在发现火车和驳船运输的速度要比卡车更快。因为,为了减少运输时间,Trancorp打算用火车和驳船来向Burland运输物资。
推理结构:
目标:To reduce shipping time
方案:Trancorp plans to switch to trains and barges to transport goods to Burland
思考方向:方案无法达成目标或方案无法操作。
选项分析:
(A) 用汽车送货到Burland不会显著的比用火车或者驳船送货到Burland贵。成本如何不一定会导致方案直接“无法操作”。
(B) 在未来的两年内,通过到达Burland的桥来到达Burland的汽车数量将会上升。汽车数量上升和方案无关。
(C) 因为有太多的汽车走大桥了,所以那些路的状况都很差。本选项解释了汽车为什么会速度慢,但是和方案无关。
(D) Correct. 到达Burland的驳船需要等很长的一段时间来卸货。如果本选项成立,则方案将无法达成“减少运输时间”的目标。
(E) 大部分的送货到Burland的汽车都会空车返回。汽车是否会空车返回和方案无关,可以排除。
特殊问法及其解法
特殊问法主要可以分为两类—解释题和黑脸题。
解释题
顾名思义,解释题就是让我们解释一个现象或者一个观点。这类考题和阅读考题非常接近,原则上我们只需要直接回答问题即可。
例题10
The number of applications for teaching positions in Newtown's public schools was 5.7 percent lower in 1993 than in 1985 and 5.9 percent lower in 1994 than in 1985. Despite a steadily growing student population and an increasing number of teacher resignations, however, Newtown does not face a teacher shortage in the late 1990's.
Which of the following, if true, would contribute most to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy above?
(A) Many of Newtown's public school students do not graduate from high school.
(B) New housing developments planned for Newtown are slated for occupancy in 1997 and are expected to increase the number of elementary school students in Newtown's public schools by 12 percent.
(C) The Newtown school board does not contemplate increasing the ratio of students to teachers in the 1990's.
(D) Teachers' colleges in and near Newtown produced fewer graduates in 1994 than in 1993.
(E) In 1993 Newtown's public schools received 40 percent more applications for teaching positions than there were positions available.
情景:1993年应聘教师的人数比1985年下降了5.7%,1994年应聘教师的人数比1985年下降了5.9%,且学生数量和老师辞职数量都在上升,但是,Newtown居然没有碰到教师短缺的现象。
推理:推理文段属于“A, however, 非B”型,直接选择可以解释文中现象的选项即可。
选项分析:
(A) 许多Newtown的公立学校的学生都没有从高中毕业。如果学生没毕业,那应该更缺乏老师,无法解释为什么不缺老师。
(B) Newtown的新的住房在1997年会被安排入住并且被期望能给Newtown的公立小学带来12%的学生数量的增长。如果学生数量还在上升,那么Newtown的老师短缺现象就更加严重了。
(C) Newtown学校的管理层没有周密考虑在90年代上涨的学生与老师的比例。无论学校的管理层是否有考虑老师短缺的问题,都不会影响老师是否真正的短缺。
(D) 1994年在Newtown内的和邻近Newtown的师范学校的毕业生少于1993年的。本选项解释了为什么1994年应聘老师比1993年应聘老师要少,但是无法解释为何不缺老师。
(E) Correct. 1993年Newtown的公立学校收到的应聘者数量超过了应有职位数量的40%。若1993年收到的应聘者数量比待聘职位的数量多了很多,那么这证明1993年教师数量是供过于求的,自然Newtown在90年代末期也就不一定缺乏教师。
黑脸题
句子作用题,俗称“黑脸题”,是GMAT批判性推理考题中较为特殊的一类。其推理文段通常较其他题型更长,其中会有一句或者两句加黑加粗。所有这类考题的问法均类似,即(若有两个黑体部分)
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
那么,什么叫“作用”呢?简单地说,作用的意思是加黑加粗的部分在一个推理中扮演什么样的角色。例如:
Hunter: Many people blame hunters alone for the decline in Greenrock National Forest's deer population over the past ten years. Yet clearly, black bears have also played an important role in this decline. In the past ten years, the forest's protected black bear population has risen sharply, and examination of black bears found dead in the forest during the deer hunting season showed that a number of them had recently fed on deer.
In the hunter's argument, the portion in boldface plays which of the following roles?
(A) It is the main conclusion of the argument.
(B) It is a finding that the argument seeks to explain.
(C) It is a correct explanation that the argument concludes.
(D) It provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
(E) It introduces a judgment that the argument opposes.
解决黑脸题时,要抓住两个要素:
1.通读整个文段,判断文段的主结论;确定主结论后,判断两黑体部分和主结论的关系。
2.看选项时,不要过分关注那些抽象名词的意思(例如选项B中的finding和选项C中的evidence等),要把关注点放在这些抽象名词身后的定语从句上。那些定语从句真正揭示了黑脸部分的作用。
例题1:
Hunter: Many people blame hunters alone for the decline in Greenrock National Forest's deer population over the past ten years. Yet clearly, black bears have also played an important role in this decline. In the past ten years, the forest's protected black bear population has risen sharply, and examination of black bears found dead in the forest during the deer hunting season showed that a number of them had recently fed on deer.
In the hunter's argument, the portion in boldface plays which of the following roles?
(A) It is the main conclusion of the argument.
(B) It is a finding that the argument seeks to explain.
(C) It is a correct explanation that the argument concludes.
(D) It provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument.
(E) It introduces a judgment that the argument opposes.
1.确定文段的主结论并判断黑脸部分与主结论的关系。
本文段的主结论为:black bears have also played an important role in this decline.
黑脸句是该主结论所质疑的内容。
2. 选项分析
(A) 它是推理文段的主结论。主结论必须是推理文段的真正立场,而本推理文段整体上是不同意这个黑体字部分所述的观点的,排除。
(B) 它是一个推理文段寻求解释的发现。推理文段没有尝试去解释这个黑体字部分,而是在反驳该黑体字部分,排除。
(C) 它是一个推理文段总结下来正确的解释。推理文段不同意这个黑体字部分所述的观点,排除。
(D) 它给出了一个支持推理文段主结论的证据。黑体字部分不是一个证据,而是一个有待验证的判断,排除。
(E) Correct. 它提出了一个推理文段反对的判断。本选项表达了黑体字部分的真正角色,保留。
黑脸题部分看不到哪句话标黑😭
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